Implementing effective change in schools depends not only on having well-founded, worthwhile ideas, but also on the ability of the school’s leadership to communicate proposals persuasively. The power to shift perspectives, inspire action, and implement meaningful transformation lies in mastering the art of persuasion through communication.
This is not a new issue. Not surprisingly, there is a long history of influential thinkers recognising and offering advice on this truth. By drawing on these timeless principles, school boards and senior managers can enhance their communication strategies to make their voices heard and move the school forward in ways that will enhance achievement of the Mission, Vision and Values.
Aristotle’s Three Forms of Persuasion: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos
Originating in 4th century BC Ancient Greece, Aristotle’s framework of public speaking remains one of the most enduring guides to persuasive communication through effective rhetorical appeals. He identified three essential modes of communication, each of which is required as a component of persuasion:
Effective communicators skilfully balance all three of Aristotle’s rhetorical elements, creating messages that resonate intellectually and emotionally while maintaining credibility.
Confucian Rhetoric: Persuasion Through Ethical Influence
Although persuasive communication was not a central concern of the ancient Chinese philosopher, Confucius (孔子), Confucian philosophy does emphasise the use of rhetoric to persuade others using speech that is grounded in sincerity, moral integrity, and the pursuit of harmony. Unlike the more adversarial rhetorical traditions that were prevalent in Europe at the time, Confucian communication seeks to build consensus rather than to win debates. In some ways, Confucius’ emphasis on ethical persuasion aligns closely with Aristotle’s “ethos”, as credibility and moral character are seen as being essential to persuade others. By fostering trust and demonstrating genuine concern for the wellbeing of others, Confucius’ felt that communication should inspire loyalty and enduring influence over those who listen.
Cicero’s Rhetorical Framework: The Five Canons
In about 84 BC, the Roman statesman and orator Cicero wrote a treatise called “De Inventione” which included a systematic approach to rhetoric that he termed the “five canons of rhetoric”:
Cicero thus underscores the importance of preparation and organisation in persuasive communication, arguing that by carefully crafting messages that are both logical and engaging, speakers can guide their audience towards agreement with clarity and impact.
Jesus Christ’s Teaching: the Power of Parables, Questions, Authority and Compassion
When we observe the spectacular, prolonged, ongoing growth of the Christian faith across the world over the past two millennia, it seems easy to make a case that Jesus may have been the most effective speaker and teacher in history.
Jesus Christ spoke persuasively through the use of parables, which were simple yet profound stories that conveyed deep spiritual truths (Matthew 13:3-58). These parables, such as the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son, used relatable, everyday situations to teach complex moral and theological lessons. Following Jesus’ example of speaking in parables in Matthew 13 and elsewhere, we can identify five tips for effective communication:
Because Jesus’ parables were engaging and easy to understand, they resonated with people of all backgrounds. Additionally, parables encouraged self-reflection, allowing listeners to draw their own guided conclusions rather than feeling forced into accepting a message. This technique of encouraging individual discernment made his teachings more personal, authentic, memorable and consequential.
Another technique Jesus used was asking thought-provoking questions. Like Socrates, instead of providing direct answers, he often answered questions with another question that challenged his listeners’ assumptions and invited deeper reflection. For example, when asked whether it was lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, he responded, “Whose image is on the coin?” (Matthew 22:20), leading his listeners to think critically about their own beliefs. By engaging people in this way, Jesus encouraged active participation in the conversation, making his teachings more personal and persuasive, and in many cases, irresistible.
Jesus also spoke with great authority and confidence, distinguishing himself from other religious leaders of his time. The Gospels frequently note that people were astonished at his teachings because he spoke “as one having authority”, and not as the scholars and teachers of the day (Matthew 7:29). His confidence was not based on validation from others but on his deep relationship with God and his knowledge of divine truth. This unwavering conviction inspired awe, trust and admiration, compelling many to believe in his message. Unlike the Pharisees, who relied on rigid interpretations of the law, Jesus emphasised the spirit of the law, demonstrating wisdom that surpassed human understanding.
Finally, Jesus’ persuasive power was rooted in his compassion and sincerity. He genuinely cared for those he spoke to, healing the sick, comforting the afflicted (and afflicting the comfortable!), while also spending time with society’s outcasts. His love for people made his words more credible because they were backed by action. Jesus’ ability to connect personally with his audience made his teachings not only persuasive but also transformative, leading countless individuals to follow him and adopt his message of love and salvation.
Quintilian’s Education of the Orator: The Ethical Speaker
Quintilian was a Roman educator and rhetorician who lived from 35 to 96 AD. He believed that a great speaker must not only be skilled in persuasion but also be a person of virtue. Like Confucius and Jesus Christ, he emphasised the importance of ethical rhetoric in persuasion, arguing that an effective orator must also be a virtuous person. His concept of ethical speaking was rooted in the belief that persuasion should be grounded in truth, integrity, and moral responsibility.
Quintilian was convinced that people’s speech should not be used to manipulate or deceive, but rather to guide audiences towards just and reasonable conclusions. For Quintilian, the ideal speaker was not only skilled in argumentation and eloquence but also committed to upholding ethical principles in both speech and personal conduct.
The central focus of Quintilian’s philosophy was the idea that a speaker’s credibility, or ethos, plays a crucial role in persuasion. He believed that an audience is more likely to be convinced by someone who is recognised as being honest, knowledgeable, and morally upright. This notion is highlighted by his famous definition of an orator as being “a good man speaking well”. By embodying ethical values, Quintilian argued in his 12-volume textbook “Institutio Oratoria” that a speaker fosters trust and establishes a strong connection with the audience, making the arguments conveyed more compelling and effective. In contrast, those who rely on deception or manipulation may achieve short-term success but ultimately risk losing credibility and influence.
Ignatius Loyola’s Advice: Strategy, Diplomacy, and Integrity
Just over 480 years ago in December 1545, the Council of Trent began its proceedings in Italy to address the challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation that was underway in Europe at the time. The aim of the Council was to clarify Catholic doctrine and reform the Church. Pope Paul III, who convened the Council, recognised a need for theological expertise and therefore asked Ignatius Loyola, founder of the recently formed Society of Jesus (Jesuits), to provide three men to serve as theologians to the three papal legates presiding over the council.
In response to the Pope’s request, Ignatius appointed several men to serve as theological advisors. Before they left Rome in early 1546, Ignatius gave them strategic advice in the form of instructions on how to communicate persuasively in meetings at the Council. His advice emphasised preparation, diplomacy, adaptability, and integrity – qualities essential for influencing others without compromising one’s principles. His advice focussed on four instructions:
This advice may be 480 years old, but it remains sound and relevant today for school board meetings. The Jesuits became known as “the schoolmasters of Europe” in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries due to their extensive network of schools and their prominence as scholars, scientists, and educators, and they continue to run schools and universities around the world that are currently education about one and a half million students.
The Jesuits’ educational work has continued for almost five centuries following a consistent philosophy of educational formation and discernment. Therefore, it seems wise to consider the wisdom of Ignatius’ advice as a timeless model for school leaders as they navigate complex discussions, demonstrating that persuasion is not just about winning arguments but about modelling wisdom, discernment and humility.
Modern Political Oratory: The Power of Clarity and Conviction
Effective political orators in the modern era share several key traits that enable them to captivate audiences, inspire movements, and shape the future – precisely the skills that school boards and principals require. Trying to build a list of the most effective political orators of recent times is inevitably a controversial task, but my “top 12” would include (in alphabetical order of surnames) Winston Churchill, Mahatma Gandhi, Mikhail Gorbachev, Václav Havel, Adolf Hitler, Martin Luthur King Jr, Nelson Mandela, Barack Obama, Margaret Thatcher, Leon Trotsky, Gough Whitlam, and Malala Yousafzai.
One of the most fundamental qualities they all possess is the ability to articulate their message with clarity and conviction. Whether through fiery speeches, poetic rhetoric, or measured reasoning, these leaders communicate in a way that is both persuasive and memorable. They also understand the power of storytelling, often using personal anecdotes, historical references, and vivid imagery to create emotional connections with their listeners. Additionally, they possess a deep awareness of their audience, tailoring their tone, language, and delivery style to resonate with different demographics and cultural contexts.
Another shared strength among these orators is their ability to project confidence and authority. Whether through Churchill’s resolute wartime speeches, Obama’s smooth and charismatic delivery, or Thatcher’s unwavering firmness, these speakers exude a presence that commands respect. Many of them also employ rhetorical techniques such as repetition, parallelism, and rhetorical questions to reinforce their messages. For example, Martin Luther King Jr’s “I Have a Dream” speech is remembered for its rhythmic use of repetition, while Hitler’s powerful oratory was marked by escalating cumulative intensity that built emotional momentum. Moreover, all of these speakers understood the significance of timing and cadence, knowing when to pause for dramatic effect or accelerate their delivery to energise the crowd.
Despite these common characteristics, each orator has (or had) their own distinctive style contributing to their effectiveness. Churchill’s speeches, for example, were deeply rooted in classical rhetoric, filled with powerful metaphors and historical references that evoked British resilience. Hitler, on the other hand, relied on emotional manipulation, theatrical gestures, and a soaring intensity to stir nationalist fervour. Obama’s style is marked by a combination of intellectual eloquence, personal warmth, and an ability to make complex ideas accessible. King’s rhetorical power stemmed from his preacher-like delivery, rich with Biblical references and moral urgency, while Mandela’s and Havel’s speeches emphasised reconciliation, forgiveness, and unification of a fractured society.
Thatcher’s oratory was defined by her steely resolve and assertiveness, which reinforced her image as the “Iron Lady”. Gandhi’s effectiveness as a speaker did not come from grand oratory, but rather from his quiet, deliberate, and morally persuasive discourse that emphasised nonviolence and truth. Trotsky, who was known for his sharp intellect, used logic and revolutionary zeal to rally crowds, while Whitlam’s speeches blended wit, passion, and an infectious, sweeping vision for social progress. Lastly, Malala Yousafzai, though a young speaker, follows in the tradition of passionate moral persuasion, using her personal experiences and measured tone to advocate for education and gender equality.
School principals and board members should be heartened by the oratorical diversity of political speakers which highlight the fact that effective communication is not a one-size-fits-all formula that can be achieved (to mix metaphors) by a single silver bullet. Rather, political oratory shows that effective communication is a blend of personal strengths, historical context, clarity, conviction, and audience perception. Whether through impassioned delivery, logical arguments, or sheer moral authority, each of these political speakers found their own unique way to inspire, persuade, and lead.
Modern Psychological and Business Communication Theories: the Science of Influence and Persuasion
Modern psychological and business communication theories are very popular in the corporate world even though they tend to be simplistic derivatives of the classical approaches described above. Whereas classical techniques of persuasion rely heavily on the spoken word – oratory and rhetoric – modern business persuasion relies on a more diverse set of persuasive techniques including video, social media, and advertising. With the increasing bureaucratisation and corporatisation of many schools, these communication theories are gaining traction in some schools where school leaders and board members are either unaware of classical approaches to oratorical persuasion or else want to be seen to be embracing the “latest bright new shiny object”.
One of the most influential of these contemporary frameworks is Robert Cialdini’s six principles of influence and persuasion: reciprocity, commitment and consistency, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity.
Reciprocity suggests that people feel obliged to return favours, making them more likely to comply with requests. Commitment and consistency highlight that individuals prefer to act in ways that align with their past behaviours and beliefs. Social proof builds upon the tendency of people to follow the actions of others, particularly in uncertain situations, while authority emphasises the power of expertise and expert credibility in persuasion. Liking shows us that people are more inclined to be persuaded by those they find agreeable or similar to themselves, and scarcity builds on FOMO (the fear of missing out), making limited opportunities more attractive.
Beyond Cialdini’s principles, modern business communication theories stress the importance of emotional appeal and storytelling. Research in psychology indicates that messages which evoke emotions such as joy, fear, or excitement tend to be more persuasive than purely logical arguments. Businesses and marketers use storytelling and narratives to create a connection between their audience and a product or idea, making the message more memorable and powerful. Psychologists maintain that because storytelling engages an audience at an emotional level that (they hope) builds trust, narratives are a powerful aid in influencing decisions in business negotiations, marketing campaigns, and leadership communications such as initiating a policy or strategic change in a school.
Another key approach used in the corporate world to persuade others involves framing and priming. Framing refers to how information is presented to shape perceptions. Studies show that people react differently depending on whether they are risk-averse or risk-hungry when a choice is framed as a potential benefit or a way to avoid risk. Priming, on the other hand, subtly influences listeners’ responses by exposing them to certain cues beforehand. For example, using words associated with reliability and trust in a promotional poster advertising a parents’ meeting can lead potential attendees to regard the event (or the school) as being more dependable than they might otherwise think. Techniques such as these help to shape (or manipulate) decision-making while avoiding overt coercion, making them highly effective (if at times deceptive).
In addition to these strategies, modern persuasion theories emphasise the role played by algorithms in personalising digital communications, something that Aristotle and his contemporaries never had to consider. The rise of ‘big data’ and artificial intelligence allows businesses, including schools, to tailor messages to specific audiences, increasing their perceived relevance and persuasive power. Personalised communications which use data to deliver targeted content (including advertisements), have been shown to make a significant difference in enhancing engagement and conversion rates in commercial settings, and the same psychological impacts can be assumed for schools. Moreover, social media platforms enable real-time interaction and feedback, allowing businesses to adapt their persuasive strategies dynamically while simultaneously seducing consumers into impulsive purchases.
Consultants in the corporate world often maintain that by integrating non-verbal (or less verbal) techniques which combine pragmatic business and psychological principles like those described above, businesses (including schools) can craft highly effective persuasive strategies to influence their clients’ (i.e. parents’) behaviour, their employees’ motivation, and the public perception of the organisation.
I’m not confident that Aristotle, Confucius or Cicero would be persuaded by those corporate consultants’ arguments.
- Dr Stephen Codrington
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